INTRESTNG FACTS-THE UNIVERSE

                                                        INTRESTNG FACTS-THE UNIVERSE

[- Astronomy -]

Astronomers believe that the universe contains one atom for every 88 gallons of space.

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[- Comets -]

A Comet's tail always points away from the sun.

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[- Comets -]

Until the mid sixteenth century, Comets were believed to be not astronomical phenomena, but burning vapors that had arisen from distant swamps and were propelled across the sky by fire and light.

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[- Debris -]

There are approximately 10,000 pieces of equipment revolving around the earth. About 3,000 of these pieces are satellites, the rest are odd bits of Debris.

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[- Earth -]

The Earth spins at 1,000 mph but it travels through space at an incredible 67,000 mph.

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[- Gold -]

According to scientists, Gold exists on Mars, Mercury, and Venus.

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[- Gravity -]

A space vehicle must move at a rate of 7 miles per second to escape the earth's Gravitational pull. This is equivalent to going from New York to Philadelphia in about twenty seconds.

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[- Gravity - Weight -]

A bucket filled with earth would Weigh about five times more than the same bucket filled with the substance of the sun. However, the force of Gravity is so much greater on the sun that a man Weighing 150 pounds on our planet would Weigh 2 tons on the sun.

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[- Halley's Comet -]

In 1910, when it was announced that Halley's Comet would once again pass the earth, hysteria broke out in Europe, based on the belief that the arrival of this comet always heralded catastrophe. The war of 66 A.D. that brought about the fall of Jerusalem, the devastation of Rome by the Huns in 373, the Battle of Hastings in 1066 (it is Halley's Comet that can be seen in the famous Bayeux Tapestry, announcing the death of Harold), and many other tragic events did in fact coincide with the comet's appearance. Whether or not these occurrences actually had anything to do with the comet, anxiety spread throughout Europe as soon as its impending arrival was announced, and thousands of people fled to the mountains for safety. A group of French scientists published a paper claiming that the earth would be poisoned by fumes from the comet's tail. Reports of "comet insanity" and suicide attempts filled the newspapers, and "anticomet pills," guaranteeing protection from the comet's noxious fumes, were bought up eagerly. The comet, however, came and went without much incident though, it might be noted, World War I began four years later.

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[- Light -]

It takes 8 minutes 17 seconds for light to travel from the Sun's surface to the Earth.

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[- Mass -]

99% of our solar systems mass is concentrated in the sun.

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[- Moon -]

The moon weighs 81 billion tons.

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[- Proportions -]

-More than 1 million earths would fit inside the sun. -If our Sun were just inch in diameter, the nearest star would be 453 miles away.

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[- Pulsar -]

A Pulsar is a small star made up of neutrons so densely packed together that if one the size of a silver dollar landed on earth, it would weigh approximately 100 million tons.

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[- Quasar -]

A galaxy of typical size, about 100 billion suns produces less energy than a single Quasar.

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[- Spanse -]

If the earth were the size of a quarter, the sun would be as large as a 9 foot ball and would be located a football field distance from the earth. If the entire solar system were the size of a quarter, the sun would be visible only under a microscope, and the nearest star would be 300 feet away If our whole galaxy were the size of a quarter, our solar system would be less than the size of a molecule. Other galaxies would be from a foot to 1,000 feet away.

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[- Spanse -]

Scientists believe that hydrogen comprises approximately 90 to 99 percent of all matter in the Universe.

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[- Spanse -]

Our galaxy has approximately 250 billion stars and it is estimated by astronomers that there are 100 billion other galaxies in the universe.

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[- Stars -]

The Star Alpha Herculis is twenty five times larger than the circumference described by the earth's revolution around the sun. This means that twenty five diameters of our solar orbit would have to be placed end to end to equal the diameter of this Star.

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[- Sun -]

The Sun provides our planet with 126,000,000,000,000 horsepower of energy every day. This means that 54,000 horsepower is delivered to every man, woman and child on earth in each twenty four hour period. This amount of energy equals only about two billionths of the total energy broadcast into our solar system by the Sun each day.

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[- Venus Transit -]

Transits of Venus across the disk of the Sun are among the rarest of planetary alignments. Only six such events have occurred since the invention of the telescope (1631, 1639, 1761, 1769, 1874 and 1882). The next two transits of Venus will occur on 2004 June 08 and 2012 June 06.

The latest Venus transit occcured in 1882, 122 years ago. So no human alive on Earth has ever witnessed a Venus transit! Venus takes more than six hours to track across the Sun.

Amazing Facts about the universe

• The Sun is always losing weight in fact Scientists have worked out that it loses  around 4 Million tonnes every second, this is the amount of hydrogen gas that the sun turns into energy every second.

• The universe extents from the Earth for at least 10 Billion Light Years and its probably still expanding.

• A Human being living on Neptune would never live for one "Neptune Year". The Neptune Year is the time it takes Neptune to travel once around the sun.(165 Earth Days)
• From Edge To Edge the Milky Way is about 100,000 light years across.  
• The Moon is moving slowly away from the Earth at the rate of 3cm per year.  
• Every Star would explode if the Gravity did not hold its material together.  
• If the Sun became a Black Hole, it would be only a few kilometers across but it could swallow the Earth.

Interesting Facts About the Universe

So you think you know your universe? We’ve got our own top 10 list on the most interesting facts about the Universe.

1. It was hot when it was young

The most widely accepted cosmological model is that of the Big Bang. This was proven since the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation or CMBR. Although, strictly speaking, no one knows exactly what ‘banged’, we know from extrapolation that the Universe was infinitely hot at birth, cooling down as it expanded.
In fact, even only within minutes of expansion, scientists predict its temperature to have been about a billion Kelvin. Moving backward to 1 second, it is said to have been at 10 billion Kelvin. For comparison, today’s universe is found to have an average temperature of only 2.725 Kelvin.

2. It will be cold when it grows old

Observations made especially on galaxies farthest from us show that the Universe is expanding at an accelerated rate. This, and data that show that the Universe is cooling allows us to believe that the most probable ending for our universe is that of a Big Freeze.
That is, it will be devoid of any usable heat (energy). It is due to this prediction that the Big Freeze is also known as the Heat Death.Accurate measurements made by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) on the current geometry and density of the Universe favor such an ending.

3. The Universe spans a diameter of over 150 billion light years

Current estimates as with regards to the size of the Universe pegs it at a width of 150 billion light years. Although it may seem peculiarly inconsistent with the age of the Universe, which you’ll read about next, this value is easily understood once you consider the fact that the Universe is expanding at an accelerated rate.

4. The Universe is 13.7 billion years old

If you think that is amazing, perhaps equally remarkable is the fact that we know this to better than 1% precision. Credit goes to the WMAP team for gathering all the information needed to come up with this number. The information is based on measurements made on the CMBR.
Older methods which have contributed to confirming this value include measurements of the abundances of certain radioactive nuclei. Observations made on globular clusters, which contain the oldest stars, have also pointed to values close to this.

5. The Earth is not flat – but the Universe is

Based on Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, there are three possible shapes that the Universe may take: open, closed, and flat. Once again, measurements by WMAP on the CMBR have revealed a monumental confirmation – the Universe is flat.
Combining this geometry and the idea of an invisible entity known as dark energy coincides with the widely accepted ultimate fate of our universe, which as stated earlier, is a Big Freeze.

6. Large Scale Structures of the Universe

Considering only the largest structures, the Universe is made up of filaments, voids, superclusters, and galaxy groups and clusters. By combining galaxy groups and clusters, we come up with superclusters. Some superclusters in turn form part of walls, which are also parts of filaments.
The vast empty spaces are known as voids. That the Universe is clumped together in certain parts and empty in others is consistent with measurements of the CMBR that show slight variations in temperature during its earliest stages of development.

7. A huge chunk of it is made up of things we can’t see

Different wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum such as those of radio waves, infrared, x-rays, and visible light have allowed us to peer into the cosmos and ‘see’ huge portions of it. Unfortunately, an even larger portion cannot be seen by any of these frequencies.
And yet, certain phenomena such as gravitational lensing, temperature distributions, orbital velocities and rotational speeds of galaxies, and all others that are evidence of a missing mass justify their probable existence. Specifically, these observations show that dark matter exists. Another invisible entity known as dark energy, is believed to be the reason why galaxies are speeding away at an accelerated rate.

8. There is no such thing as the Universe’s center

Nope. The earth is not the center of the Universe. It’s not even the center of the galaxy. And no again, our galaxy is not the entire universe, neither is it the center. Don’t hold your breath but the Universe has no center. Every galaxy is expanding away from one another.

9. Its members are in a hurry to be as far away from each other as possible

The members that we are talking about are the galaxies. As mentioned earlier, they are rushing away from each other at increasing rates. In fact, prior to the findings of most recently gathered data, it was believed that the Universe might end in a Big Rip. That is, everything, down to the atoms, would be ripped apart.
This idea stemmed from this observed accelerated rate of expansion. Scientists who supported this radically catastrophic ending believed that this kind of expansion would go on forever, and thus would force everything to be ripped apart.

10. To gain a deeper understanding of it, we need to study structures smaller than the atom

Ever since cosmologists started to trace events backward in time based on the Big Bang model, their views, which focused only on the very large, got smaller and smaller. They knew, that by extrapolating backward, they would be led into a universe that was very hot, very dense, very tiny, and governed by extremely high energies.
These conditions were definitely within the realm of particle physics, or the study of the very small. Hence, the most recent studies of both cosmology and particle physics saw an inevitable marriage between the two.
There you have it. Feel free to come up with a longer list of your own.

Pluto: The Dark Planet

Pluto is the farthest planet in our solar system from the sun. It was discovered through mathematics before there were telescopes. Pluto is about 39 times as far from the sun as earth is. It takes 248 earth years to orbit the sun, in twenty of them in moves inside Neptune's orbit becoming the eight planet from the sun for that period. It is currently inside Neptune's orbit and will remain that way until March 15, 1999. (the picture is an artist's rendition, not an actual photograph)

General information on Pluto:

• Diameter (miles)= 1,420
• Mass (trillion trillion lbs)= .026
• Density (earth=1)= .36
• Gravity (earth=1)= .0637
• Period of Rotation (hours)= 6.4
• Escape Velocity (mph)= 2,640
• Major Atmospheric Gas= Methane
• Inclination of Equator (degrees)= 62
• Known Moons= 1
• Mean Orbital Velocity (mph)= 10,604
• Minimum Distance From Sun= 2,756 (millions of miles)
• Maximum Distance From Sun= 4,555 (millions of miles)
• Mean Distance From Sun= 3,656 (millions of miles)
• Period of Revolution (earth years)= 247.70

Detailed information on Pluto:

Unfortunately, very little is known about the planet Pluto because of its great distance from the earth. It has an estimated diameter of 4,000 miles which is about half of earth's. The temperature on Pluto may be as low as -360 degrees Farenheit. In 1905, it was discovered that some gravitational force seemed to be affecting the orbits of Neptune and Uranus. Percival Lowell, and American astronomer predicted that it was a new planet. Pluto is the only planet that has not been visited by any spacecraft and even the Hubble Telescope can only pick up the major features of Pluto's surface.

Composition--

The actual composition of Pluto is unknown but it is believed that the planet is about 70% rock and 30% water ice like Triton. Pluto has bright and dark areas on its surface. It is thought that the bright areas are covered by ices of nitrogen as well as smaller amounts of methane and carbon monoxide. The dark areas may be due to some sort of primordial organic material or photochemical reactions caused by cosmic rays.

Atmosphere--

Again, little is known about the atmosphere of the Dark Planet. For the majority of the planet's long year the atmospheric gases are frozen into ice. These gases are probably nitrogen with some methane and carbon monoxide.

Theories--

Due to Pluto's unusual orbital pattern, much like Triton (satellite of Neptune), it was once believed that Pluto may have been a moon to Neptune but this is now generally ruled out. The more generally accepted belief is that Triton was once like Pluto was captured in Neptune's gravitational force. Perhaps Pluto, Triton and Charon were once part of a class of objects that were separated by some force. The recent discovery of planetary-like objects beyond Pluto may help support this theory.

Neptune: The Blue Planet

Neptune is usually the eight planet from the sun, but every 248 years Pluto will move inside Neptune's orbit for about twenty years. Currently, Neptune is the ninth planet from the sun (it is the twenty year period) and will remain that way until March 15, 1999. Neptune is thirty times as far from the sun as the earth and cannot be seen without a telescope.

General information on Neptune:

• Diameter (miles)= 30,200

• Mass (trillion trillion lbs)= 227.1

• Density (earth=1)= .30

• Gravity (earth=1)= 1.13

• Period of Rotation (hours)= 17.7

• Escape Velocity (mph)= 52,794

• Major Atmospheric Gas= Hydrogen

• Inclination of Equator (degrees)= 29.0

• Known Moons= 2

• Mean Orbital Velocity (mph)= 12,147

• Minimum Distance From Sun= 2,771 (millions of miles)

• Maximum Distance From Sun= 2,819 (millions of miles)

• Mean Distance From Sun= 2,794.4 (millions of miles)

• Period of Revolution (earth years)= 164.79

Detailed information on Neptune--

Surface and Atmosphere:

It is believed that Neptune is made chiefly of hydrogen, helium, water and silicates . Silicates are the minerals that make up most of earth's crust. Astonomers believe the atmosphere is about 2,000 miles thick. The clouds of Neptune may consist of frozen ammonia, or combinations of crystals of ice, frozen methane and frozen ammonia. Temperatures on Neptune are much lower than that of earth and so animals that live on earth are not likely to be found there.

Satellites--

Neptune as two satellites which travel around it. One, Triton is close to 3,000 miles in diamter. It has a circular orbit and makes its revolution around Neptune in about six days. The other satellite, Nereid, is only 150 miles in diameter. It is three and a half million miles from the planet. It takes about 360 days to travel around Neptune; nearly one earth year.

Uranus: The Sideways Planet

Uranus was named after the earlisest god of the sky in Greek and Roman mythology. It is the seventh planet from the sun, only Neptune and Pluto are farther away. These last three planets are a great mystery and unfortunately, not too much is known about them because of the great distance that separates them from the earth. Uranus is known as the Sideways Planet because it is greatly inclined at its equator (see General Information), moreso than any other planet in the solar system.

General Information on Uranus:

• Diameter (miles)= 31,600
• Mass (trillion trillion lbs)= 190.95
• Density (earth=1)= .216
• Gravity (earth=1)= .79
• Period of Rotation (hours)= 17.2
• Escape Velocity (mph)= 47,470
• Major Atmospheric Gas= Hydrogen
• Inclination of Equator (degrees)= 82.1
• Known Moons= 15
• Mean Orbital Velocity (mph)= 15,234
• Minimum Distance From Sun= 1,699 (millions of miles)
• Maximum Distance From Sun= 1,868 (millions of miles)
• Mean Distance From Sun= 1,784 (millions of miles)
• Period of Revolution (earth years)= 84.01

Detailed information on Uranus:

Everything--

Little is known about the surface of Uranus though it is believed that the planet is surrounded by clouds. It's temperature is guessed to be about minus 357 degrees Farenheit. There are fifteen know satellites and Uranus also has at least eleven thin rings around it, but they are much fainter than Saturn's. They seem to be made of countless chunks of some unknown black substance. Most of the chunks are about one year in diameter. These rings are always parallel with Uranus' equator. Uranus was discovered in 1781 by Sir William Herschel, a British astronomer. By 1948 five small moons were detected orbitting Uranus. When the United States spacecraft Voyager 2 flew by the planet in 1986, ten other moons, smaller than the first five, were discovered.

Saturn: The Ringed Planet

Saturn is the second largest planet, behind Jupiter and it is the sixth farthest from the sun. It can be viewed from the earth with the naked eye. Around, there are seven thin, flat rings around it that make Saturn one of the most beautiful objects in the solar system. The only other planets with rings are Jupiter, Neptune and Uranus, but their rings are faint compared to Saturn's. Saturn was the farthest planet that ancient astronomers knew about and it was named after the Roman God of agriculture.

Here is some planetary data on Saturn:

• Diameter (miles)= 74,600
• Mass (trillion trillion lbs)= 1,253.8
• Density (earth=1)= .125
• Gravity (earth=1)= .93
• Period of Rotation (hours)= 10.2
• Escape Velocity (mph)= 79,639
• Major Atmospheric Gas= Hydrogen
• Inclination of Equator (degrees)= 26.7
• Known Moons= 18
• Mean Orbital Velocity (mph)= 21,565
• Minimum Distance From Sun= 837.6 (millions of miles)
• Maximum Distance From Sun= 936.2 (millions of miles)
• Mean Distance From Sun= 886.7 (millions of miles)
• Period of Revolution (earth years)= 29.46

Detailed Information on Saturn:

Surface and Atmosphere--

It is believed that Saturn does not have a solid surface and is instead a giant ball of gas. though is does seem that Saturn has a solid inner core or iron and rocky material. The outer core probably consists of ammonia, methane, and water. A dense layer of clouds covers Saturn. There are a series of belts and zones of varied colors on the cloud tops which is caused by differences in the temperature and altitude of atmospheric gas masses. It is doubted that any form of life exists on the planet Saturn.

Density and Mass--

Of all the planets in the solar system, Saturn has the lowest density. It is only about one-tenth the density of earth and two-thirds as dense of water. While Saturn may have a lower density than other planets it has a much higher mass than any other planet except Jupiter. It is about 95 times as massive as the earth. The force of gravity on Saturn is slightly greater than that of earth's and so a 100lb object on earth would weigh about 107lbs on Saturn.

Rings--

The rings of Saturn do not touch it but surround the planet at its equator. There are seven rings each consisting of thousands of narrow ringlets. These ringlets are made up of billions of particles of ice that range from the size of dust to chunks over ten feet wide. The outer ring may measure as much as 180,000 miles across, yet they are too think to be seen when in direct line with the earth. The gaps between rings is about 2,000 miles. Who discovered these rings? Galileo did in the early 1600's but thought they might be large satellites.

Satellites--

In addition to all its rings, Saturn has at least 18 moons. The largest is Titan having a diameter of 3,190 miles, greater than that of Mercury and Pluto. Many of Saturn's satellites have large craters. Mimas, a satellite of Saturn, has a crater that covers one-third its diameter. Lapetus, another satellite, has a bright and dark side, while Hyperion is shaped more like a cylinder than a sphere.

Flights to Saturn--

The U.S. launched a space probe in 1973 to study both Saturn and Jupiter. It was an unmanned craft, called the Pioneer-Saturn, and it returned up-close photographs of the planet that led to the discovery of two outer rings. It was also found that Saturn has a magnetic field 1000 times the strength of the earth's. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were launched in 1977 by the U.S. and confirmed the existence of Saturn's seventh ring. They also helped discover 9 of Saturn's satellites.

Jupiter: The Giant

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the son and was named after the the king of the Roman Gods. Jupiter is the largest object in the solar system besides the sun. It's diameter is eleven times that of the planet earth and it would take approximately 1,000 earths to fill up its enormous volume. Even the Great Red Spot of Jupiter is more than three times the diameter of the planet earth.

Here is some general information on Jupiter:

• Diameter (miles)= 88,730
• Mass (trillion trillion lbs)= 4,187
• Density (earth=1)= .24
• Gravity (earth=1)= 2.34
• Period of Rotation (hours)= 9.8
• Escape Velocity (mph)= 133,104
• Major Atmospheric Gas= Hydrogen
• Inclination of Equator (degrees)= 3.1
• Known Moons= 16
• Mean Orbital Velocity (mph)= 29,216
• Minimum Distance From Sun= 460.3 (millions of miles)
• Maximum Distance From Sun= 507.2 (millions of miles)
• Mean Distance From Sun= 483.4 (millions of miles)
• Period of Revolution (earth years)= 11.86

Here is some detailed information on Jupiter:

Surface and Atmosphere--

Layers of dense clouds prevents the surface of Jupiter from being seen from the earth. These high-level clouds consist of frozen crystals of amonia and methane. Jupiter is considered by most astronomers to be a fluid planet which means it is primarily composed of gas, but some liquid as well. However, the planet mays have a small solid core of rocky material. A series of belts and zones can be seen on Jupiter's clouds when viewed through a telescope. The belts are dark lines that circle the planet parallel to its equator. The zones are light-colored areas between the belts. Through the years, the widths and positions of the belts change. A large, oval mark known as the Great Red Spot can be seen on Jupiter's clouds. It is about 25,000 miles long, making it more than three times the diameter of the earth, and is also 20,000 miles wide. This spot slowly changes its position from year to year. It is generally believed that the spot is an intense atmospheric disturbance similar to a hurricane. It seems to consist of violently swirling masses of gas.
Jupiter's atmosphere is composed mainly of hydrogen (84 %) and about 15% helium. There are also small traces of acetylene, ammonia, ethane, mehtane, phosphine, and water vapor. Atmospheric pressure on Jupiter has never been accurately measured. The pressure is the force exerted by the weight of the gases in the planet's atmosphere. It is estimated that the pressure at the tops of the clouds are near that of earth's (14.7 lbs per sq.in.) but the pressure below is probably much greater. Most of the thick atmosphere is composed of hydrogen gas but the deep interior may consist of highly compressed liquid nitrogen. Jupiter's core seens to be made up of iron-bearing rocks. As for the planet, it is doubtful but certain microscopic organisms may be able to live in some regions of the planet's atmosphere.

Mass and Density--

No other planet in the solar system can compare to Jupiter in mass. It is about 318 times the mass of earth, however, it is of a low density. It is slightly denser than water and about a fourth as dense of the earth. The force of gravity on Jupiter, however, is much greater than the earth's. An object weighing 100 pounds on earth would weigh about 253 pounds on Jupiter.

Satellites and Ring--

Sixteen known satellites can be found orbitting the planet Jupiter. Its four largest moons are known as Galilean satellites because they were discovered by the Italian astronomer Galileo in 1610. They all have diameters greater than 1,900 miles. Two of the moons, Ganymede and Calisto, appear to be made up of equal proportions of iced rocky material. Both are covered with many craters. Europa and Io, the other two, are made of rocky material but contain little or no ice. Jupiter's other twelve satellites have diameters ranging from 9 to 106 miles. In addition to the sixteen satellites, Jupiter also has a thin ring around it. It appears to be made of fine dust particles and is much fainter than Saturn's rings. It is more than 4,000 miles wide and about 18 miles thick.

Flights to Jupiter--

It was in the early 1970's that the first flights to Jupiter began. Pioneer 10 , a U.S. space probe was the first to fly past Jupiter. It measured Jupiter's radiation belt and reported on the amount of hydrogen and helium in the planet's atmosphere. It also discovered that Jupiter has an enormous magnetic tail which is an extension of Jupiter's Magnetosphere (zone of strong magnetic forces around the planet) and is about 500 million miles long. Another unmanned U.S. space probe, Pioneer-Saturn flew by Jupiter on December 2, 1974. It took may close-up photographs of Jupiter's polar regions and reported data on its Great Red Spot, magnetic field and temperature. The U.S. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 provided information on Jupiter's ring and also the four largest satellites. In 1989, Galileo began a six-year journeyd to Jupiter in whcih it dropped a probe to study the planet's atmosphere beneath the clouds.

Mars: The Red Planet

Mars is the fourth planet from the sun and in a way it, besides the earth, is probably the planet we pay the most attention to. Scientists scramble to unlock the mystery of whether there is life on mars and the public in general has always seemed to have had an interest in the Red Planet. It was named after the Roman God of War whose Greek counterpart is Ares. The most conspicous reason for this is probably that when Mars could be viewed, its deep red color gave the image of blood. Whatever secrets lie in the Red Planet will probably be uncovered soon, for our technology grows fast and so does our curiousity.

Here is some general information on Mars:

Planetary Data
• Diameter (miles)= 4,217
• Mass (trillion trillion lbs)= 1.416
• Density (earth=1)= .71
• Gravity (earth=1)= .38
• Period of Rotation (hours)= 24.6
• Escape Velocity (mph)= 11,185
• Major Atmospheric Gas= Carbon Dioxide
• Inclination of Equator (degrees)= 25.2
• Known Moons= 2
• Mean Orbital Velocity (mph)=53,980
• Minimum Distance From Sun= 128.4 (millions of miles)
• Maximum Distance From Sun= 154.9 (millions of miles)
• Mean Distance From Sun= 141.6 (millions of miles)
• Period of Revolution (earth years)= 1.88

Here is detailed information on Mars:

Surface and Atmosphere--

Surface conditions on Mars are more similar to earth than any other planet in the solar system. However, earth's plants and animals would not survive on Mars. This is because surface temperature on Mars is much lower than that of the earth, hardly ever rising above the freezing point of water. There is evidence that Mars used to have large amounts of water on it millions of years ago, but almost none exists today. But, there is probably frozen water in Mars' polar ice caps or beneath its surface. Mars' atmosphere contains only a slight amount of oxygen, but many scientists believe that some form of life may exist on Mars even though none has been found yet. There are several outstanding features noticeable on Mars' surface- polar caps, bright areas and dark areas. Numerous craters are present, caused by meteors crashing into the surface. Other features like canyons, gorges and what appear to be dry riverbeds have be photographed by unmanned space probes. This supports the possibility of there once having been large quantities of water flowing on the planet's surface. Mars also has volcanoes, particularly in one region near its equator. The highest volcano on Mars is twice as high as Mount Everest. Near this volcano is a huge canyon that may be a fault line.
The bright areas on Mars are reddish-brown in color and cover nearly two-thirds of the planet's surface. They are sort of like our deserts in that they are dry and covered by dust, sand and rocks. Most of the surface contains limonite , a brick colored mineral that can be vound in some of earth's desert.
The dark areas on Mars cover the other one-third of the planet. They generally appear greenish-gray or bluish-gray and form irregular patterns on the surface. These regions are called maria (seas) even though they don't contain measureable amounts of water. Throughout the year the size and color of those dark areas changes and sometimes disappear. Most astronomers believe this is due to blowing sand and dust that covers them.
Located at the planet's north and south poles are the polar caps. They appear white from the earth and probably contain larege amounts of frozen water. These caps seen to evaporate and become smaller when it is tilted toward the sun and freeze and grow when it is tilted away from the sun. The evaporation of these caps may provide some of the water vapor found in Mars' atmosphere.

Mars' atmosphere is much thinner than that surrounding the earth. It is composed mainly carbon dioxide with small amounts of nitrogen, argon, oxygen, carbon monoxide, neon, krypton and xenon. There are also tiny traces of water vapor, probably from the evaporation of the polar caps. Mars' atmospheric pressure is about 0.1 pounds per sq.in. Three types of clouds can be seen in the Martian atmosphere: Pink clouds of dust which cover much of the planet; blue clouds of ice crystals and thick white clouds which are thought to consist of water vapor.

Density and Mass--

Mars is about four-fifths as dense as the earth but its mass in only about one-tenth that of the earth. Thus, its force of gravity is only about three-eighths that of the earth. A 100 pound object on earth would weigh about 38 pounds on Mars.

Satellites--

Mars has two small moons that travel around it. The closest one, Phobos, is also the largest of the two. It has a diameter of about fourteen miles at the equator and about eleven miles from pole to pole. It makes its revolution around Mars in about seven and a half hours. The smaller satellite, Deimos, has a diameter of about six miles and makes its journey around Mars in thirty hours. Asaph Hall, an American astronomer, discovered both the satellites in 1877.

Flights to Mars--

In 1965, the unmanned U.S. spacecraft Mariner 4 flew about 6,118 miles from Mars. Four years later, Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 flew even closer to it. Mariner 9 orbited Mars in 1971 and 1972 where it photographed both satellites, a dust storm on the planet and various surface details. Mars 3 , a So viet probe, also orbited the planet in 1971 and released a capsule that made a soft landing on the planet's surface. However, the capsule transmitted information for only twenty seconds when it unexpectedly fell silent. Photographs sent to the earth by Mariner 4 and Mariner 9 revealed various meteor craters on the planet's surface. These craters had never been seen in observations by astronomers from the earth. It was also found that Mars had no measureable magnetic field.
Later, on July 20, 1976, the U.S. Viking 1 landed on Mars in desertlike region near the planet's equator. The same year Viking 2 landed farther north and transmitted high-quality, close-up photographs of the surface. Both probes also analyzed Mars' atmosphere and soil to seek signs of life. Yet, in spite of these experiments, scientists are still relatively unable to determine whether lfe exists on the Red Planet.

Earth: The Mother Planet

The planet Earth is the most special planet in the solar system to ourselves, for it is our home. It has often be referred to as Gaia (Mother) and is truly deserving of the name because the Earth houses countless numbers of lifeforms. No other planet in the solar system seems to have that characteristic. So much is known about our planet but little can really be understood of the complexities of our world. The earth is the third planet from the sun which puts it in the perfect place to support life. Any closer to the sun and it would be too hot; and any farther would be too cold. This page on Earth will be kept down to only general planetary information and will not get overly detailed on every aspect of earth.

Here is some general information on Earth:

• Diameter (miles)= 7,926
• Mass (trillion trillion lbs)= 13.177
• Density (earth=1)= 1
• Gravity (earth=1)= 1
• Period of Rotation (hours)= 23.9
• Escape Velocity (mph)= 25,055
• Major Atmospheric Gas= Nitrogen
• Inclination of Equator (degrees)= 23.5
• Known Moons= 1
• Mean Orbital Velocity (mph)= 66,641
• Minimum Distance From Sun= 91.4 (millions of miles)
• Maximum Distance From Sun= 94.5 (millions of miles)
• Mean Distance From Sun= 93 (millions of miles)
• Period of Revolution (earth years)= 1

Here is detailed information on Earth:

Surface and Atmosphere--

As many perople already know, the earth is about 70% water which is mostly ocean and has an average depth of 12,450 feet. The oceans, lakes and rivers make up what is known as the hydrosphere which animals and plants need to live. Land makes up the other 30% and the largest bodies of land are called continents. The earth, like other planets some other planets in the solar system has poles at either end. All the continents and ocean basins are part of the earth's crust which varies from five to twenty miles thick. Air surrounds the earth and extends as far as 1,000 miles above the surface. The earth's atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. Small amounts of other gases (less than 1%) are also present. Also present in the air are water particles and dust particles. In the lowest part of the earth's atmosphere, the troposphere, are clouds. The farther away air is from the surface, the thinner it gets until it gradually fades into space.

Within the earth--

Under the earth's crust is a ball of hot rock and metal. This "ball" is divided into three sections: mantle, outer core, inner core The mantle lies just below the crust and extends downward for about 1,800 miles. The rock that makes up this part of the mantle consists of silicon, oxygen, aluminum, iron and magnesium. The upper part of the mantle can reach a temperature of about 1,600 degrees Fareheit. As you go deeper the temperature can hit 4,000 degrees. At this point the mantle meets the outer core.
The outer core is believed to be about 1,400 miles thick and is made of melted iron and nickel. The temperature ranges from 4,000 to 9,000 degrees Farenheit.
Making up the center of the earth is the ball-shaped inner core. It lies about 3,200 miles below the surface. The center of the inner core lies another 800 miles past that. It is believed that the inner core is made of solid iron and nickel with the temperature reaching 9,000 degrees Farenheit.

Venus: Earth's Twin

Venus is the second planet from the sun and a close neighbor to the earth. It was named after the Roman Goddess of Beauty. Venus is usually one the brightest objects in the sky, which might be the reason it got its name. It is quite similar to the planet earth mainly in its size and a few other characteristics which is why it is often considered the Earth's twin. However, surface conditions are not nearly the same making it a quite inhospitable environment.

Here is some general information on Venus:

Diameter (miles)= 7,521

Mass (trillion trillion lbs)= 10.738

Density (earth=1)= .95

Gravity (earth=1)= .88

Period of Rotation (hours)= 5,832.2

Escape Velocity (mph)= 23,042

Major Atmospheric Gas= Carbon Dioxide

Inclination of Equator (degrees)= 2.6

Known Moons= 0

Mean Orbital Velocity (mph)= 78,364

Minimum Distance From Sun= 66.8 (millions of miles)

Maximum Distance From Sun= 67.7 (millions of miles)

Mean Distance From Sun= 67.2 (millions of miles)

Period of Revolution (earth years)= .63

Detailed information on Venus:

Venus' Phases--

Upon viewing Venus from a telescope, Venus can be seen going through "changes" in shape and size. Theses "changes" are actually called phases and are very similar to those that the moon goes through. This is a result on different parts of Venus' sunlit area being visible at different times. Venus can be seen on the opposite side of the sun about every 584 days as it and the earth make their orbits. Almost all the sunlit area can be seen at this point. As it continues its voyage around the sun, less of the sunlit area can be seen, but its size seems to increase. After about 221 days only half the planet is still visible. Then, 71 days later, only a thin sunlit area can be seen because Venus is now on the same side as the earth. As Venus moves away from the earth, it can be seen in the early evening sky. When it approaches the earth, it can be seen in the early morning sky.

Surface and Atmosphere--

While Venus may be known as "earth's twin" because of its size, it surface conditions are quite unsimilar from earth. It has been very difficult to learn about Venus because the planet is always surrounded by thick clouds of sulfur and sulfuric acid. This is probably due to active volcanoes on the planet. Like Mercury, the surface of Venus is extremely hot and dry. However, surface features like mountains, canyons, valleys and flat plains have been detected. Two of its mountain regions are the size of entire continents on earth. There is no water on Venus' surface because the high temperatures would simply make the water boil away. Of all the planets in the solar system, Venus has the heaviest atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure is estimated at 1,323 lbs. per sq.in as compared to earth's 14.7 lbs. per sq.in. It consists primarily of carbon dioxide but also has small amounts of of nitrogen and water vapor. There are minute traces of argon, carbon monoxide, neon and sulfur dioxide. Scientists believe that plants and animals that are found on earth could not exist on Venus because of the high temperature and insufficient oxygen. It is not known whether other forms of life exist there, but it is highly doubted.

Mass and Density--

Venus' mass is about four fifths that of earth and its force of gravity is also only slightly less than the earth's. For example: If an object weighed 100 pounds on earth it would weigh about 88 pounds of Venus. Venus's density is rather close to that of the earth as well, but is still slightly less. So, if you took a chuck of equal size out of the earth and Venus, Venus' piece would weigh a little less.

Space Flights to Venus--

On December 14, 1962, Venus became the first planet to be observed by a passing space craft. The U.S. Mariner 2 , an unmanned spacecraft, pass within 21, 600 miles of Venus after traveling through space for more than three and a half months. It conducted various measurements of conditions on and near the planet. In 1966, two unmanned Soviet spacecraft explored Venus, but one crashed into the planet. The next year, both an American and Soviet spacecraft reached Venus. Both reported large amounts of carbon dioxide in the planet's atmosphere. Mariner 10 flew by Venus on February 5 and reported that Venus had no magnetic field. Venera 9 , an unmanned Soviet craft landed on Venus and provided the first close-up photograph of the planet's surface. Three days later, the Venera 10 photographed Venus' surface and measured its atmospheric pressure. In December of 1978 four unmanned spacecraft reached Venus. The U.S. Pioneer Venus 1 began orbiting the planet and transmitted radar photographs. The second U.S. space craft, Pioneer Venus 2 studied Venus' density and chemical composition. The two Soviet crafts, Venera 12 and Venera 11 sent back data on the lower atmosphere of Venus. In May of 1989, the U.S. spacecraft Magellan was sent to Venus on a mission of mapping the planet with radar.

SPACE TECHNOLOGY

Exploring the unknown has always been a fascinating venture for mankind. For centuries man has held dreams of reaching the heavens above. Today with the help of government organizations such as NASA humans are able to extend their grasp into the realms of space. On this page you will find information on the development of technology in space from the past, present, and in the future.

Choices

Where it all began

Early ideas about space, the foundation of NASA, the space race between Russia and America, and more.

What it is now

Current information on what America's space programs are doing.

Where it will be in the Future

Ideas of what is to come. . .

There are many unusual occurrences in space that mankind constantly seeks to gain knowledge about in an effort to learn about what is beyond our world. From black holes to white dwarfs, the number of unusual events and phenomenon astounds the mind. Unfortunately, for many of these space phenomenon , we have little proven information and can only hypothesize and theorize on what may really be. However, one thing is for sure-- The truth is out there-- and one day we may truly understand.

The Big Bang

How did the universe begin? There have been several cosmological observations and theories attempting to answer this question. Of these, the BIG BANG theory provides the most generally accepted explanation.
According to this theory, a large explosion aboutn ten to twenty billion years ago created the universe. As a result of the explosion, the universe became composed chiefly of radiation. Soon, the radiation formed a rapidly expanding area called the primordial fireball The main part of the fireball became matter, mainly hydrogen, after a few hundred years. In addition to the hydrogen were small amounts of helium and other light elements. The matter continued to decrease in density after the explosion. Supposedly, the matter broke apart into large clumps that formed galaxies. Within the galaxies, smaller clumps formed stars. Parts of these clumps would become solar systems.

Galaxies are currently still moving away from each other and it is probable it will remain this way until the end of time. But, it the possibility that the galaxies may collide in approximately seventy million years and explode again should not be ruled out.

Mercury: The Messenger Planet

Mercury is the planet closest to the sun and it is also the second smallest planet, behind pluto. It was named after the Roman God of Commerce and Thievery who bore wings on his boots and cap. It was probably named so because Mercury seemed to move swiftly across the sky. Since Mercury is closest to the sun, it does have the shortest year (time it takes to make one revolution around the sun). Another interesting fact is that although the side closest to the sun is extremely hot, the other half that faces away from the sun is always extremely cold.

Here is some general planetary data on Mercury

Diameter (miles)= 3,031

Mass (trillion trillion lbs)= .729

Density (earth=1)= .98

Gravity (earth=1)= .39

Period of Rotation (hours)= 1,407.6

Escape Velocity (mph)= 9,619

Major Atmospheric Gas= oxygen

Inclination of Equator (degrees)= 0.0

Known Moons= 0

Mean Orbital Velocity (mph)= 107,132

Minimum Distance From Sun= 28.6
(millions of miles)

Maximum Distance From Sun= 43.4 (millions of miles)

Mean Distance From Sun= 36.0 (millions of miles)

Period of Revolution (earth years)= .24

Detailed Information on Mercury:

Mercury's Phases--

Much like the Earth's moon, Mercury can be seen going through "changes" in size and shape that are called phases. This occurs from Mercury's sunlit side being visible from Earth at various times. For 116 days as Mercury and the Earth travel around the sun, almost all its sunlit area is visible from the Earth because Mercury is on the other side of the Sun. When Mercury moves toward the earth, less and less of this sunlit area can be seen. After 36 days, only half of its surface is visible. Soon, after about 22 days, it nears the same side of the sun that the earth is on and then only a thin sunlit area is visible. After Mercury passes in front of the sun and begins moving away from earth, then more of the sunlit are can be seen again. When Mercury is on the same side of the sun as the earth, then its dark side faces us. Since Mercury and the earth orbit at different angles, Mercury is usually not visible at this point. However, every three to thirteen years the planet is in transit and can be seen as a black spot against the sun. This generally occurs in November and May, but mostly in November.

Surface and Atmosphere--

Also like our moon is Mercury's surface. It reflects about six percent of the light from the sun. Mercury's terrain consists of broad, flat plains, steep cliffs and craters similar to those on our moon. Its probable that the craters were formed by meteors and comets crashing into it when it was still a young planet. But even now, Mercury does not have enough of an atmosphere to slow down and burn up approaching meteors. Like the moon, Mercury is convered by a think layer of minerals called silicates in the form of timy particles. While Mercury Mercury has a moonlike surface, its interior is more similar to that of the earth. Scientists generally believe that the interior consists of mainly iron and some other heavy elements. Since Mercury has a magnetic field around it, it is likely that it also has a large core of liquid iron, the same as the earth.
The sun's rays are approximately seven times as strong on Mercury as they are on earth whcih results in the planet being extremely dry, hot and virtually airless. It a person could stand on Mercury's surface, the sun would appear about two and a half times larger than it is viewed on earth. The temperature on the planet's surface may reach 801 degrees F. However, at night, that temperature may drop as low as -279 degrees F. Also, because of Mercury's lack of atmosphere, the sky is black and the stars can probably be seen during the day.
The reason that Mercury has such a weak atmosphere is that it is surrounded by an extremely small amount of helium, hydrogen, oxygen and sodium. This envelope of gases is so thin that the greatest possible atmospheric prassure (force exerted by weight of gases) is about 0.00000000003 lbs. per sq.in as compared to earths 14.7 lbs per sq.in. Scientists doubt that there is any life on Mercury because of the lack of oxygen and great heat.

Density and Mass--

Mercury's density is only slightly less than the earth's. However, since Mercury is much smaller than the earth, it has a lot less mass. Its smaller mass cuases its force of gravity to only be one third as strong as the earth's. Thus, an object that ways one hundred pounds on earths, would weigh only thirty-eight pounds on Mercury.

Flights to Mercury--

The first and only spacecraft to visit Mercury was the United States Mariner 10 . This unmanned spacecraft flew within 460 miles of Mercury on March 29, 1974. It passed by one more time on September 24, 1974 and photographed protions of Mercury's surface. It was the spacecraft that detected Mercury's magnetic field.
Mariner 10 was also the first spacecraft to study two planets. It made scientific measurements of Venus on its voyage to Mercury. Manned expiditions of Mercury will be difficult because of the unfavorable surface conditions, but time will tell.

Solar system

                                                  SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system is an abundance of mystery even though we have learned much about it. It is home to the nine planets, one which we call home, as well as to the sun and other spacial bodies like comets and asteroids. It has been studied for centuries by astronomers like Copernicus and Galilieo and many of the newest discoveries have just recently been made. It is a subject well worth studing for it may provide answers to some of mankind's greatest mysteries. This section of Lost In Space deals specifically with the solar system and we hope it will provide you with all the information you need.

The actual boundries of the solar system haven't ever truly been defined since we are not really sure how much of it extends past Pluto. The birth of the solar system does have a generally accepted theory however. Most scientists believe the solar system developed from a huge nebula (cloud of gas and dust) that was once swirling around the sun. Slowly, it began to flatten out. Sections of the nebula began to swirl like whirlpools and gas and dust collected near the center of them. These collections of gas and dust grew by attracting nearby particles of matter. These slowly developed into the planets that now orbit the sun.

THE SUN

The Sun: Sol  

 

The Sun is the life-giver. Without it, there would be no life on earth because plants utilized the sun's energy and animals need plants to survive. Less than half a billionth of the Sun's output of enery actually reaches the earth, but it is enough to power the entire globe. The Sun is by far the largest object in our solar system, making up 99.8 percent of the mass in the solar system. What little is left is mostly Jupiter's mass. A million earth's could easily fit into the sun, with room to spare. Before mankind was able to comprehend the earth's dependency on the Sun, many ancient cultures- Egyptians, Greeks and Romans- considered the bright ball as a God that brought light. Now we are beginning to appreciate the sun's complexity and magnificence.

General Information about the Sun:

• Diameter (miles)= 865,000
• Volume= 1,300,000 times that of earth
• Temperature= Surface =10,000 degrees Farenheit Center 27,000,000 degrees Farenheit
• Age=4,600,000,000
• Rotation period=1 month
• Revolution around Milky Way= 200 million years

Detailed Information on the Sun:

Sun's Compostion and Mass--

Nearly three-fourths of the mass of the sun is hydrogen, the lightest of the known elements. The other fourth is pretty much helium ( the word "helium" comes from the Greek word "Helios", meaning sun.) Since the sun is so large, the force of gravity extered is far greater than that of any of our planets. Thus, objects would weigh more on the sun than on any planet. For example, a boy who weighs 100lbs on earth would weigh about 2,800lbs on the sun. It is through the force of gravity that the sun controls the orbit of the planets in the solar system. In addition to the planets, the sun also pulls its own gases toward the center. These gases are extremely hot and thus have expansive tendencies which serve to counteract the sun's gravity, preventing collapse.

How the sun was born and how old it'll get--

Within our galaxy, the Milky Way, and even between galaxies, there are huge clouds of gas and dust. When portions of these gas clusters begin to condense under the force of gravity, stars are born. Eventually, thermonuclear reactions take place which produce energy and cause the masses of gas and dust to shine as a star. It is believed that our sun was formed in this manner. Although details of the solar system's birth are not known, study and exploration are helping scientists to understand. Enough energy is released from thermonuclear reactions that the sun will probably shine for ten billion years. So, since the sun is about 4,600,000,000 years old it will shine for at least 5,000,000,000 more years. After that time passes the sun will shrink and become hotter on the inside, though slightly coller on the surface. The outer regions of the sun will expand, probably encompassing Mercury at which point it will be a red giant. After all its thermonuclear energy has been used, it will begin to shrink until it becomes a white dwarf . The sun may then throw of gases in violent eruptions called nove explosions during its change to a white dwarf. After billions of years as a white dwarf it will have used up all energy and heat. Such stars are known as black dwarfs .

The Sun's interior and surface--

At the center of the sun, the core , the material is more than 100 times the density of water, but still consists of gases. It is in this region where thermonuclear reactions occur. Just beyond the core is the radiative zone which extends through the middle of the sun's interior. The temperature in this zone is about 4,500,000 degrees Farenheit. since heat tends to flow from hot to cool places, this drop in temperature causes the energy to flow towards the surface. The convection zone , just below the surface, extends a few hundred miles below until it meets the radiative zone. In the convection zone the temperature is about 2,000,000 degrees Farenheit and the gases are about a tenth as dense as water. The actual name for the sun's surface is the photosphere . It is 200 miles thick and maintains a temperature of about 10,000 degrees Farenheit. The photosphere contains a number of small patches of gas called granules . A typical granule lasts only 5 to 10 minutes and then fades away. Other features of the photosphere are studied in order to learn more about the sun. Among these features are sun spots (see Stormy Activity below).

Sun's Atmosphere--

At about 100 miles above the photosphere the chromosphere begins. This is the middle region of the sun's atmosphere and has a temperature of about 50,000 degrees Farenheit. Part of it consists of streams of gas that shoot up briefly, called spicules . Each spicules lasts up to 15 minutes and can be 500 miles thick. Just above the chromosphere is the corona where the temperature varies from 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 degrees Farenheit. However, the molecules of the corona are so far apart that the gasses present in this region have little heat, only the direct rays of the sun give the corona its temperature.

The Sun's Stormy Activity--

A variety of spectactular activities take place on the sun. Here is a general overview of each: Solar Magnetism -The reason that various stormy activities occur is because of the changes in the magnetic field of the sun. A magnetic field is the area around a magnet where magnetism exerts a force. The sun's magnetic fields somewhat resembles that of a bar magnet, especially near the sun's poles. However, near the center, the magnetic field is irregular because of the movement of gases. The atoms of these gases are ionized and those atoms that have lost electrons for a gas called plasma . The motion of large quantities of plasm distort the magnetic lines of force by changing their direction. As a result, changes occur in the magnetic field, and cause stormy activity.
Prominences - Promences are bright arches of gases that outline lines of magnetic force. These arches shine brightly because the gases are of less density and radiate light more efficiently than the gases in the chromosphere and corona. Typical prominences may reach up to 20,000 miles above the sun's surface and be about 3,000 miles thick. There are two classes of prominences- quiescent and active. During its two or three month existence, a quiescent prominence changes very little. On the other hand, an active prominence changes quite rapidly over a period of only several hours.
Sunspots - When strong loops of magnetic lines of force extend through the sun's surface, they lower the temperature of the gas. Thus, the gas does not shine as brightly as the surrounding gas and appears as a sunspot. Soon, the magnetic loop may break up into thinner loops resulting in a sunspot group . The typical sunspot diameter is 20,000 miles. A sunspot has two parts: the umbra and penumbra . The penumbra is the outer part which is hotter and therefore brighter.
Flares - If a sunspot group (see above) has existed for a long time, the magnetic lines of force will usually become jumbled. The energy may be released in a discharge known as a solar flare . The energy is released in the form of light, heat and cosmic rays. Flares may be as small as a sunspot or as large as a sunspot group. A small flare may last only ten minutes while larges flares reach about an hour.
Solar Wind - Since the corona is extremely hot, gases in this area slowly expand away from the sun. This flow of gases will eventually mix with gases near the outer planets of the solar system. It is this flow of gases that is called the solar wind. It generally travels from 1 to 2 million miles per hour.